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Χετταϊκή Αυτοκρατορία
Χετταϊκή Αυτοκρατορία Hittite Empire Χαττία]] ---- Wilusa Truisa Mira KuwalyaSehha River Land Arzawa Masa Karkisa Hittite Lower CountryHittite Upper Country Tarhuntassa Kizzuwatna Kaska Azzi Isuwa Alziya NuhassaAmurra ]] thumb|300px| [[Χετταϊκή ΑυτοκρατορίαΧαττία ]] thumb|300px| [[Χαττία ]] Χετταίοι]] ]] σε αρχικά στάδια]] ]] ]] Μικρά Ασία]] - Μία Αυτοκρατορία της Ασίας. Ετυμολογία Η ονομασία "Χετταϊκή Αυτοκρατορία" σχετίζεται ετυμολογικά με την λέξη " ". Χρονολόγηση Οι βασιλείες των Χετταίων βασιλέων δεν είναι εύκολο να προσδιοριστούν με τα λίγα στοιχεία που υπάρχουν. Το ελάχιστα διασωζόμενα κείμενα, ιδίως επιστολές ηγεμόνων δίνουν μια πολύ αποσπασματική εικόνα. Ο βασιλέας Μύρσιλος Β' αναφέρει μια Έκλειψη Ηλίου στο 10ο έτος της βασιλείας του. Δεν γνωρίζουμε, όμως, ποια από τις τρείς εκλείψεις ηλίου που χρονολογικά συμπίπτουν με την εποχή εκείνη είναι αυτή που αναφέρει. * στις 13 Αυγούστου του 1315 π.Χ., έκλειψη 95%, ώρα 15:00 - 17:23, διάρκεια, 16:12 ώρες, σχεδόν πλήρης έκλειψηΗμερομηνία σύμφωνα με το Γρηγοριανό Ημερολόγιο, βάση στοιχείων της NASA. * στις 11 Ιουνίου του 1312 π.Χ., έκλειψη 12%, ώρα 11:36 - 14:30, διάρκεια 13:06 ώρες σχεδόν καθόλου παρατηρήσιμη * στις 31 Μαρτίου του 1308 π.Χ., έκλειψη 10%, ώρα 05:34 - 07:22, διάρκεια 06:31 ώρες, σχεδόν καθόλου παρατηρήσιμη Ιστορία Προϊστορία Την 3η χιλιετία π.Χ. οι Χατταίοι (πιθανότατα οι Άσιοι) εγκαταστάθηκαν στην κεντρική Μικρά Ασία. Η φυλή αυτή ήταν προ-Ινδοευρωπαϊκή. Το δεύτερο ήμισυ της 3ης χιλιετίας π.Χ. οι Χατταίοι αναμείχθηκαν με τους Χετταίους που μάλλον ήρθαν από τον Καύκασο και έφεραν μαζί τους την γλώσσα τους. Ενδεχομένως η κάθοδος όσο και η ανάμειξη πρέπει να έγιναν αφ' ενός μεν ειρηνικά και χωρίς επιδρομές και πράξεις βίας, αφ' ετέρου δε σταδιακά έτσι ώστε η ακριβής χρονολογία δεν είναι δυνατόν να εξακριβωθεί, αφού η κάθοδος αυτή δεν άφησε σημεία. Την ίδια εποχή σημειώνεται η κάθοδος και άλλων ινδοευρωπαϊκών φύλλων, των Λουβίων στα νοτιοδυτικά, και των Παλαίων στα βορειοδυτικά της Μικράς Ασίας. Οι Χετταίοι άκμασαν την 2η χιλιετία π.Χ.. Η χώρα ονομάστηκε Hatti (δηλ. Ασσία) από το όνομα των Χατταίων. Την γλώσσα τους όμως την ονόμαζαν Νεσιλικά (Nesili) από την πόλη Kanesh ή Νύσα. Ο πρώτος βασιλέας των Χετταίων που διέθετε ανάκτορο στην Άττοσα (Hattusa) καταγόταν από την πόλη Κοσσάρα της οποίας η τοποθεσία παραμένει ακόμα άγνωστη. Ο δεύτερος βασιλέας είχε το όνομα Ανίτας και καταγόταν επίσης από την άγνωστη πόλη Κουσάρ. Οι Χετταίοι ανέπτυξαν και τεχνική επεξεργασίας του σιδήρου. Ήταν οι πρώτοι και οι μοναδικοί στην εποχή τους που γνώριζαν να επεξεργάζονται τον σίδηρο. Αυτό τους προσέδιδε στρατιωτική υπεροχή, αφού οι άλλες σύγχρονες τους φυλές πολιτισμικά βρίσκονταν ακόμα στην Χαλκοκρατία στην καλύτερη περίπτωση. Οι Χετταίοι αυτοκράτορες, με αυστηρά διατάγματα, διατήρησαν την τεχνική αυτή (για εύλογους λόγους) μυστική ώστε να έχουν το μονοπώλιο των προϊόντων του σιδήρου. Ακμή Η Χετταϊκή Αυτοκρατορία είχε μεγάλη έκταση και περιελάμβανε μεγάλες εκτάσεις της Μικράς Ασίας, κατά καιρούς δε και την μεγάλο τμήμα της Συρίας. Πρωτεύουσα ήταν η Άττοσα (Hattusa) στον Βρορά, κάπου 150 χλμ. ανατολικά της σημερινής Άγκυρας. Σήμερα η Άττοσα (Hattusa) είναι γνωστή από τα αρχαιολογικά ευρήματα των 30.000 πλίνθων σφηνοειδούς γραφής που ανακαλύφθηκαν στις αρχές του 20ου αιώνα. Οι Χετταίοι βασιλείς είχαν μεγάλη φήμη, αφού οι Φαραώ της Αιγύπτου και οι βασιλείς της Βαβυλωνίας τους αναγνώριζαν ως ισάξιούς τους και διατηρούσαν διπλωματικές αλλά και εμπορικές σχέσεις μαζί τους. Κατά καιρούς έκαναν όμως και εκστρατείες εναντίον τους. Η Μάχη της Καδύτου (Qadesh) (1274 π.Χ.) μεταξύ Αιγύπτου και Χετταίων είναι η δεύτερη γνωστή μάχη στην ιστορία της Aνθρωπότητας (η πρώτη είναι η Μάχη της Μεγίδου) και έληξε με την υπογραφή της συνθήκης ειρήνης μεταξύ Αιγυπτιακής και Χετταϊκής Αυτοκρατορίας. Η συνθήκη αυτή μεταξύ του Ραμσή Β' και του Αττάσιλου Γ' είναι η πρώτη γνωστή συνθήκη ειρήνης στην ιστορία της Ανθρωπότητας (αντίγραφό της οποίας βρίσκεται σήμερα συμβολικά στο κτίριο του ΟΗΕ στην Νέα Υόρκη). Η Χετταϊκή Αυτοκρατορία περιελάμβανε και μια σειρά δορυφόρων κρατών, όπως *η Άνω Χώρα (Upper Land) (μεταγενέστερη Αρμενία) *η Κάτω Χώρα (Lower Land) (μεταγενέστερη Καταονία) *η Ταρκωνία (Tarhuntassa) και *η Καρχέμιδα. Η σχέσεις των Χετταίων με την Τροία και τις Μυκήνες, καθώς και με τα άλλα κράτη (Αρσαβία (Arzawa), Μίλητος) δεν έχουν απόλυτα διακριβωθεί. Υπάρχουν όμως ευρήματα Μυκηναϊκών αμφορέων στην σημερινή ανατολική Καππαδοκία όπου τότε άκμαζαν σημαντικές Χετταϊκές πόλεις. Το τέλος της Χετταϊκής Αυτοκρατορίας επήλθε στις αρχές του 12ου π.Χ. αιώνα. Οι μεγαλύτερες πόλεις καταστράφηκαν από εμπρησμούς ή εγκαταλείφθηκαν. Αιτία πιθανώς να είναι οι καταστρεπτικές επιδρομές των Λαών της Θάλασσας. Μετά από αυτό, η Καππαδοκία (το λίκνο της Χετταϊκής Αυτοκρατορίας) και η κεντρική και ανατολική Μικρά Ασία γενικότερα παρήκμασαν και περιέπεσαν για ένα διάστημα στην κυριαρχία των Ασσυρίων. Το τέλος της Χετταϊκής Αυτοκρατορίας σημαδεύει και τον τερματισμό του μονοπωλίου της επεξεργασίας του Σιδήρου, το οποίο οι Χετταίοι κατείχαν από τον 17ο π.Χ. αιώνα. Από τον 12ο π.Χ. αιώνα και μετά η τεχνική αυτή διαδόθηκε σε όλη την Ανατολή και στην Μεσόγειο. Δορυφόρα Κράτη Αναλυτικά οι αντιστοιχίες εμφαίνονται στο ακόλουθο πίνακα: thumb|600px|center| Δυτική [[Μικρά Ασία H ευρύτερη Arzawa ]] Υποσημειώσεις Εσωτερική Αρθρογραφία *Χετταίοι *Ηγεμόνες Χετταϊκής Αυτοκρατορίας *Πόλεις Χετταϊκής Αυτοκρατορίας Βιβλιογραφία * Ekrem Akurgal: Die Kunst der Hethiter. München: Hirmer 1976. ISBN 3-7774-2770-5. * Kurt Bittel: Die Hethiter. München: Beck 1976. ISBN 3-406-03024-6. * Birgit Brandau, Hartmut Schickert: Hethiter. Die unbekannte Weltmacht. München: Piper 2001. ISBN 3-492-04338-0. * Trevor Bryce: The Kingdom of the Hittites. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1998. ISBN 0-19-814095-9. * Trevor Bryce: Life and Society in the Hettite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford 2002. * Volkert Haas: Geschichte der hethitischen Religion (HdO I/XV). Leiden, New York, Köln: Brill 1994. ISBN 90-04-09799-6. * Volkert Haas: Die hethitische Literatur. Texte, Stilistik, Motive. Berlin: de Gruyter 2006. ISBN 3-11-018877-5. * Bedrich Hrozny: Die Sprache der Hethiter, ihr Bau und ihre Zugehörigkeit zum indogermanischen Sprachstamm. Ein Entzifferungsversuch von Friedrich Hrozny. Dresden 2002. ISBN 3-86005-319-1 (Nachdruck der Ausgabe Leipzig: Hinrichs 1917). * Horst Klengel: Geschichte des hethitischen Reiches (HdO I/XXXIV). Leiden, Boston, Köln: Brill 1999. ISBN 90-04-10201-9. * Johannes Lehmann: Die Hethiter. Volk der tausend Götter. Herrsching: Pawlak 1986. ISBN 3-88199-269-3. * Peter Neve: Hattusa. Stadt der Götter und Tempel. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern 1993. ISBN 3-8053-1478-7. * Kaspar K. Riemschneider, Hethitische Fragmente historischen Inhalts aus der Zeit HattuSHilis III. Journal of Cuneiform Studies 16/ 4, 1962, 110-121. * Die Hethiter und ihr Reich. Stuttgart: Theiss 2002. ISBN 3-8062-1676-2. Ιστογραφία *Ομώνυμο άρθρο στην Βικιπαίδεια *Ομώνυμο άρθρο στην Livepedia *cademia.edu *[ ] There are several Hiitite diplomatic documents showing references with the city or the area of Wilusa: 1)Wilusija (later called Wilusa) appeared in the Hittite text under King Tudhalija I (about 1420-1400 BC) when this King defeated a coalition of 22 Luwian countries and cities located in the Assuwa, Arzawa, Seha river and Haballa areas. In this damaged annals also the name Taruwisa is mentioned. 2)On a letter dated around 1310-1280 BC by King Manapa-Tarhunda of Seha River land (*6) to a not specified Hittite King (more likely Mursili II about 1318-1290 BC) Wilusa and the surrounding areas are mentioned because the mercenary called Piyamaradu had depose the governor of Wilusa Kukkunni and he is also moving to attack the island of Lazpas (Lesbos) but the Hittite army moved in the area defeating the mercenary. In this letter Wilusa is described as a city located up to north of the land under Manapa-Tarhunda control, thus in the Troad area. 3)During the Kingdom of Hittite King Muwattalli II (about 1290-1272 BC) a tablet decribes the alliance treat between the Hittite empire and the new governor or King of Wilusa named Alaksandu. In this document the Wilusa deity Appalliunas (Apollo ?) and the underground watercourse of the land of Wilusa (actually found by archaeological excavation) are mentioned. 4)In the Tawalagawa letter the Hittite King Hattusili II -formerly III- (about 1265-1240 BC) wrote to the Great King of Ahhiyawa (Achaeans) about his concern for the activity of Piyamaradu who in collusion with the Ahhiyawa king's brother Tawagalawa (which seems correspond to the Greek name of Eteocles) based in Milawanda (Miletus) are making raids in Lycia. Hattusili II is thus obligate to send his army in the Milawanda area, and Piyamaradu with Tawagalawa have fled overseas. In this letter a past hostile situation in the Wilusa area is also mentioned. 5)In the Manapa-Dattas letter the King of the Seha river land (South of Arzawa and Wilusa) wrote to an not identified Hittite King Hattusili II or Tudhalija III -formerly IV- (about 1240-1215 BC). In this letter Manapa-Dattas make reference to an Hittite army which is moving on west and to somebody who is making war action in the Wilusa area. Furthermore the Seha river land has been attacked by Piyamaradu army which has also attacked Lesbos island. 6)Another reference to Wilusa said that the deposed governor of the area Walmu (successor of Alaksandu) was refugee to the Myra King but Tudhalija III order him to return back to Wilusa. 7)The last mention of Wilusa in the Hittite text is in a letter from Suppiluliuma II (after 1215 BC) to the King of Myra about some contrast for the throne of Wilusa. 8)An interesting reference about Wilusa it has been also found in another Hittite table with religion locutions about the holly city of Istanuwa. In that area was recite a song which starts: AH-HA-TA-TA A-LA-TI A-U-I-EN-TA U-I-LU-SA-TI "When steep they comes wilusa". Unfortunately the text is incomplete but if the song makes reference to something happened in Wilusa more likely it was a glorious military event. But since the city of Istanuwa wouldn't precious located or other elements will be discover, this possible "Wilusiad" will remain just a speculative hypothesis. It is now clear that in the Bronze Age the area traditionaly identify as the Homeric Troy was know to the Hittites as Wilusa and the Greeks as Wilios. Moreover, in the "land of Wilusa" at the end of the fifteenth century BC, the Hittites knew an area called Taruwisa, which can scarcely be distinguished from the Greek Troia. This city was an important political-economical Luwian center and that it was, since about 1290 to 1215 BC, allied with the near Hittite empire. We know from the Hittite tablets and archaeological excavation that war actions, destructions and diplomatic crisis occurred in that area. The city that Homer's Iliad tells of is therefore certainly a historical reality, and in the Broze Age it lay in precisely that area of north-west of Anatolia where the tradition places it. But were the Achaeans involved in these events? Were the Homeric Achai(w)oi mentioned in some historical documents and were they involved in warfare activity in the western Anatolian area during the late Bronze Age? Reconstruction of Troy VIh/VIi (Wilusa of the Hittite text) Αχαιοί και Χετταίοι Possible representation of Ahhiyawa warrior on Hittite pottery (about 1350 BC) In Several Hittite texts the population of Ahhiyawa, which occurred at an early date as the name of a country, is mentioned. Not only does this name bear an obvious phonetic resemblance to the Achai(w)oi found in the Iliad and the A-KA-WI-JA-DE on Linear B tablet C 914 from Knossos "...a hecatomb of cattle is sent to akhaiwian.." which seems to be a unique Cretan reference to the mainland Greeks (*7). But this word also, considered geographically and politically, seems to point to the people we know as "Greeks". In the so-called Taswagalawa letter the Hittite King Hattusili II (about 1265-1240 BC) consistelly addresses the King of Ahhiyawa formally, using the style " my brother". The significate of this is that the King of Ahhiyawa is placed on the same level as the Kings of Egypt, Babylon, Assuria and the Hittite King himself (*8). Furthermore it is clear that, at least at the time the letter was writen, the Ahhiyawa were a political and military force to be reckoned with. Some expressions like "By ship" and "crosing" suggested that the Ahhiyawa were located overseas most likely to the west of Asia Minor. Based on some Hittite tablets the Ahhiyawa operational center in Anatolia was located in the city of Millawanda following the Hittite army trip of King Hattusili II to reach the area and based on some other places mentioned in association with Millawanda, that can be located in the interland of Miletus, it is clear that the geographical location of Millawanda correspond to the city of Miletus (*9). In Miletus an Achaean style citadel as well as pottery, and other Mycenaean elements have been actualy discovered. Based on the above mentioned Hittite documents this settlement was attacked and sacked around 1315 BC by Mursili II and by Hattusili II around 1250 BC. Evidences of destruction in the Achaean Miletus are in fact also attested by the archaeological excavations.In these periods the Achaeans settlements in the Anatolian coast and the relevant diplomatic relationship with the Hittite empire seems to be lead by the Achaean city of Thebes. In the letter of Hattusili II the name of the Ahhiyawa's Great King brother is Tawagalawa which seems related with the Greek name Eteocles (two occurrences of the name Etewokleweios in the Pylos tablets seems to supply an evolutionary link between Tawagalawa and this early version of Eteocles) and thus traditionaly related with the Achaean kingdoms of Orchomenos and Thebes. Another evidence is in a letter from the Great King of ahhiyawa to Hittite King Hattusili II. In this document (written in Hittite but the linguistic features of the text confirm that the writer spoke Greek, rather than Hittite, as his mother tongue) the Ahhiyawa King call himself heir of Kadmos which is traditionaly the founder of the Achaean city of Thebes. This is archaeological reasonable being the city of Thebes, before its destruction (about 1250 BC) (*10) comparable in size and political/military power with Mycenae. In this Achaean pottery fragment from Miletus dated LH IIIB2 (about 1250 BC) a typic Hittite style high helmet or pillar seems to be represented. There are several Hittite documents in which Ahhiyawa appears: 1)The earliest is the so-called "Ένδικτο Madduwata" (Indictment of Madduwata). It dates to the beginning of the 14th century BC (thus under the reign of Arnuwanda I about 1400-1375 BC or Tudhalija II about 1375-1355 BC) and recounts Hittite dealing with a certain Madduwata, forced to flee his country by Attarsiya whom the Hittites called Man of Ahhiya(wa). Madduwata was installed as a Hittite vassal ruler somewhere in southwestern Anatolian; however, he proved to be an ungrateful and overambitious person, who caused serious trouble for his overlord by attacking Hittite posesions in what appears to have been the area of classical Lycia and Caria. Later he even invaded Cyprus in alliance with his former enemy Attarsiya. 2)The next reference to Ahhiyawa comes from the time of the Hittite King Mursili II (about 1310 - 1290 BC). He conquered the country of Arzawa, which lay in the area of classical Lydia, with its capital Apasa (κλασσική Έφεσος (Ephesus)). Relying on the King of Ahhiyawa, it engaged in hostilities against the Hittites and incited the land of Millawanda to rebellion, but was defeated and its prince probably handed over to the Hittites by Ahhiyawa King. 3. Επιστολή Tawagalawa Probably the most important, and certainly the longest, Hittite text regarding Ahhiyawa is the so-called "Επιστολή Tawagalawa" (Tawagalawa letter). It is the letter of the Hittite king Αττάσιλος Γ' (Hattusili II) (about 1265-1240), to the great king of Ahhiyawa, whose name is unfortunately not preserved. The letter is named after the first person mentioned in it, which is Tawagalawa ( = Δευκαλίων), brother of the Ahhiyawa King. A more suitable label, however, would be "the Piyamaradu letter" because it is a complaint of the Hittite King to his fellow sovereign in Ahhiyawa about the depredations of Piyamaradu on Hittite territory, apparently committed with the tacit approval of the Ahhiyawa King. The most prominent feature of the letter is the apologetic and conciliatory tone used by the Hittite King to addressthe King of Ahhiyawa, probably a proof that the country of the latter was a respectable military power beyond Hittite reach. All this compatible with the facts known to us about the Achaeans of that age. 4)In the letter of the Great King of Ahhiyawa to Hittite King Hattusili II (written in Hittite but the linguistic features of the text confirm that the writer spoke Greek, rather than Hittite, as his mother tongue) the King of Ahhiyawa cites a previous letter from his correspondent. This means that by the time this letter was written a regular exchange of correspondence was established between Hattusa and Ahhiyawa. The letter deals with the matter of the islands which oroginally belonged to Assuwa. The Hitite King asserted in his message that these islands belonged to him. The King of Ahhiyawa objects that an ancestor of his received the islands from the King of Assuwa. These islands were more likelly Lemnos, Imbros, and/or Samothrace. Furthermore the Ahhiyawa king explains that a forebear of his had given his daughter in marriage to the then King of Assuwa (which after the chronology of Kings know to us must have been in the fifteenth century) and that consequently the islands had come into possession of Ahhiyawa. The mentioned forebear is Kadmos whom as above mentioned is inseparably linked with Thebes(*11) 5)In a fragmentary tablet from Hattusa the Hittite King Hattusili II mentioned a personal involvement of the Great King of Ahhiyawa in possibly fighting along the Anatolian coast. The tales is told after the successfully war campaign of Hattusili II in the western lands. In the tablet is mentioned than meanwhile the Hattusa army moved in the Seha river land the Ahhiyawa king withdrew (the translation... Ahhiyawa king withdrew... is dubfull it could also be interpretaded as... Take refuge with the King of Ahhiyawa... or...relied on the king of Ahhiyawa for support... In this case the subject could be again the trouble makers Piyamaradu) 6)The Hittites remained active in the Aegean area even close to the end of their empire by the texts from the time of Tudhalija III (about 1240-1215). He not only successfully suppressed the revolts in the west-namely the land around the Seha river, and the southwest Lycia and Caria, but even managed to establish control over Millawanda. In the as called treaty of Tudhalija III with his brother in law and vassal King Sausgamuwa of Amurru (contracted around 1220 BC), the King of Amurru was not only expressly instructed to impose a strict tarde blockade on Ahhiyawa, but the Great King of Ahhiyawa was deleted from the evidently very longstanding formula of Great Kings.(*12) Achaean arrowheads from Troy VIh/VIi strata * Category: Ιστορικές Χώρες Δυτικής Ασίας